Speak with conviction: 7 ways to use words with greater force and precision you can apply today

What is the single most common and serious error we can make with our words? It is the fallacy of equivocation. The fallacy of equivocation is the error of mixing up the senses of a word—or rather not knowing all the senses of a word. It can be a serious mistake, such as Feurerbach’s mistake that led him to think that man’s mind was God or Berkley’s mistake that led him to think that all of reality exists only in the mind. That modern political discourse makes similar mistakes is no surprise, often the cause of talking past one another and consequently (and again not surprisingly) to the feeling of provocation or bewilderment by our conversations, however avoidable it may be. By incorporating one small practice—by simply knowing the meaning of a word when you use it—our conversations can be more fruitful or simply more enjoyable.

However, it is easier said than done. It is not immediately obvious to everyone that “law” has at least 4 senses or “infinite” has at least two meanings or “justice” has at least 3 meanings or “wholly” has at least 3 meanings. And it is one thing to know that a word has multiple meanings, and another thing to know what those meanings are. How, then,  do we find the different senses of a word? Or even argue that a word has more than sense?

Aristotle. Organon. Other logical treatises. Manuscript. c. 1455-1460. Place: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.

Aristotle in the Topics, Book I Ch. 15, gives us the tools we need to find the senses of a word and to give reasons that a word has multiple meanings. He gives us many tools in that chapter but here are 7 indispensable ones:

1. Contraries with different names 

We name things as we know them. If there are contraries of a single word with different names, then most likely that word has multiple meanings, one for each name. “Sharp”, for example, can be opposed to “flat” as in a flat note and it also can be opposed to “dull” as in a dull knife. “Sharp” for a note, therefore, does not have the same meaning as “sharp” for a knife because their opposites, “dull” and “flat” are different. 

2. Contraries with the same name but clearly different meanings

Sometimes contraries can have the same name but still have different meanings. How can we know? It can be obvious that a word has different meanings because we come to know each meaning through different powers. A “clear” sound, for example, is known by hearing whereas a “clear” color is known by seeing. Although “clear” in both cases has the same contrary “obscure”, the fact that “clear” is known in one way by hearing and in another way by seeing is a sign that “clear” has two meanings. Another example is “sharp” as in a sharp note or a sharp knife or a sharp flavor: one is known by hearing, another by touch and another by taste.

3. One meaning has a contrary while the other does not. 

Sometimes a word, if used in one way, has an opposite, but other times, it does not if used in another way. “Love”, for example, when used to signify a passion, has a clear opposite “hate”. However, “love” when used to signify an action, like hugging, does not have an obvious opposite. What action would that be? Would it be the action of “hating”? Not really. 

4. Inflected forms

The same word can be used as different parts of speech. Usually, it will take an inflected form, i.e. health and healthily, pious and piously, and so on. If one part of speech has multiple meanings, then so do the other parts. If “health” can signify three things: 1) a disposition to perform its operation, or 2) what causes that disposition, or 3) a sign of possessing that disposition, then so too “healthily” would have those three meanings as well. 

5. Different meanings when applied to different kinds of things 

The same word can be said of things different in kind. For example, “good” is said of “food”, “health”, “person” and so on. What happens, however, is that the meaning of “good” changes as the kind of thing changes. When “good” is said of “food” it means what nourishes the body and produces health; when “good” is said of “health” it means the right dispositions of the body to perform its operations; when “good” is said of “person” it mean possessing virtuous like justice, temperance, fortitude and so on. The meaning of “good” changes for each kind of thing and, therefore, “good” has various meanings. 

6. The differentia are not the same

Things with the same differences have the same meaning. “Good”, when said of food, can be divided into pleasant and unpleasant. However, “good”, when said of persons, can be divided into justice, fortitude, and so on. The differentia can indicate whether a word means the same thing or not. If the differentia are not the same, then the meaning of the word is not the same. 

7. Applying comparatives like “more or less” or “in a like manner”

Putting two things next to each other can make their hidden differences become clear, just as comparing two shades of a color by putting them side by side. By putting two uses of a word side by side, one can compare their shade of meaning.

Two apples is a Botanical illustration , created by artist Damodar lal gurjar

To do that, use phrases like “more or less than” or “in a like manner” or “just as” to see if there is an equivalency of meaning. Does it make sense to say “the food is healthy in a manner like the body is healthy”? Not really. Wouldn't it be absurd to say that “the sharpness of the flavor is more or less than the sharpness of the note”? Certainly. Clearly, then, those words mean something different in both cases.

In conclusion, since there are many ways to use words, we can unfortunately fall into the fallacy of equivocation instead of communicating effectively with great force or precision. However, we can acquire that ability by being aware of the different meanings of words. We can use comparatives and other tools to help us understand the different shades of meaning in a word. By using these 7 tools—thanks to Aristotle—we can start speaking with greater conviction and clarity today.